Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development

Min Ke Qin; Mai Jian-jun

doi:doi:10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development

Min Ke Qin^*

, Mai Jian-jun

Published in Humanities and Social Sciences (Volume 13, Issue 6)

Received: 20 September 2025 Accepted: 4 October 2025 Published: 30 October 2025

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Abstract

In the studies on Islam, Sufism is an unavoidable topic, so is with Chinese Islam. This paper focuses on Chinese Islamic Sufi orders and sectarianism. Since the length of the paper is quite long, it is divided into two parts, under slightly different titles. The first title is above stated, while the second will be “Sufi Orders and Sectarians: The Shattering Chinese Muslims Unity”. It is intended by this paper to provide the reader a fuller and clearer picture on Chinese Sufism and sectarianism, whose introduction into the country since beginning stirred up disputes and conflicts within Muslim community, later spilled out the community, and escalated to common rebellion against Qing government (1644-1911) from 1862 to 1878. In this first part, the author traces the fountain sources of those orders and sectarians, often to Arab nations and Central Asia, even Muslim India. In the discussion, the author redivides those orders and sectarians into three categories: one traditional school (Qedim sect), three movements (Xidaotang, Ikhwan, and Salafiyya), and four Sufi orders (Jehriyya, Khufiyya, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya). Based on the existing materials, mainly Ma Tong’s field research work, which provides the firsthand information on Chinese Sufi orders and sectarianism, the author delineates the formation of those Sufi orders and sectarians, so to lay a solid foundation for further discussion of their later development, analyzing the causes and reasons of later disputes and conflict. This paper does not claim to be creative and all-inclusive but try to provide the reader a fuller contour of Chinese Islam. It best can be complementary to the existing body of similar research.

Published in	Humanities and Social Sciences (Volume 13, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
Page(s)	519-532
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Chinese Islam, Sufi Orders, Origin, Formation, Early-stage Development

References

[1]	See Min Ke Qin, “Islamic Astronomy and Calendrical Science in China: From Song to Qing Dynasties,” in Al-Shajarah: ISTAC Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization, vol 27, No. 2 (2022), pp. 327-349; p. 332. https://doi.org/10.31436/shajarah.v27i2
[2]	Ma Zhu, “Zuodao Tongxiao” 左道通晓 (The Notified Deviation), in his Qingzhen Zhinan 清真指南 (Guide to Islam), p. 458; in Wu Hai-ying et al. (eds.). (2008). Huizu Diancang Quanshu 回族典藏全书 (Grant Collection of Hui Classics), vol. 18, Yinchuan: Ningxia People’s Press.
[3]	Zhang Zhong, Guizhen Zongyi 归真总义 (General Meaning of Returning to God), p. 238; in Zhou Xiefan 周燮藩 (ed.), (2005). Qingzhen Dadian清真大典 (Grand Collection of Chinese Islamic Literatue), Hefei: Huangshan Bookstore. pp. 237-274.
[4]	Yang Xiao-chun杨晓春, (2011). Zaoqi Hanwen Yisilanjiao Dianji Yanjiu 早期汉文伊斯兰教典籍研究 (Studies on the Classics of Chinese Islam). Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publisher, pp. 139-141.
[5]	Ibn Battuta. (1994). The Travels of ibn Battuta: AD 1325-1354, vol. IV, trans. by H. A. R. Gibb and C. E. Beckingham. London: The Hakluyt Society. Pp. 897-898.
[6]	Schimmel, Annemarie, “Some Glimpses of Religious Life in Egypt During the Late Mamluk Period,” p. 376; in Islamic Studies (Karachi), 4 (1965), pp. 352-392.
[7]	Knysh, Iskandar, Ibn ‘Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam, SUNY Press, 1998. pp. 299-300, n. 22.
[8]	Dillon, Michael (1999), China’s Muslim Hui Community. Great Britain: Curzon Press. 92.
[9]	Ma Tong (2000b). Zhongguo Yisilan Jiaopai yu Menhuanzhidu中国伊斯兰教派与门宦制度史略 (China Islamic Sects and Sufi Institutions). Yinchuan: Ningxia People’s Press. 88-89; 90-93; 230-233; 228-229; 231; 232-240; 263; 244-265; 161-176; 180-190; 154-159; 210; 273-319; 111-112; 113-117; 107-110; 152-153; 122.
[10]	Feng Jin-yuan, 冯今源. (1996). Islam in China (Zhongguo de Yisilanjiao中国的伊斯兰教). Yinchuan: Ningxia People’s Press. 68-69.
[11]	Trinmingham, J. Spencer. (1971). The Sufi Orders in Islam. London: Oxford University Press. Passim; 31-66.
[12]	Ma Tong (2000a). The Origin of China Islamic Sects (Zhongguo Yisilan Jiaopai Menhuan Suyuan中国伊斯兰教派门宦溯源). Yinchuan: Ningxia People’s Press. 64-67; 76; 75; 42; 42-45; 115.
[13]	Gladney, Dru C. (1991). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic. Cambridge (Massachussetts) and London: Harvard University Press. 56-59.
[14]	Wen-djang, Chu. (1966). Muslim Rebellion in Northwest China 1862-1878. Paris: Mouton & Co. 4.
[15]	Israeli, Raphael. (1974). Chinese versus Muslim: A Study of Cultural Confrontation. Unpublished Dissertation, (University Microfilm No. 74-27, 175. a XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan). 581-585.
[16]	Anonymous author, “Muslim Groups in China”. (n.d.). Retrieved Sept. 20, 2025. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_groups_in_China
[17]	Lin Yi (2008). Cultural Exclusion in China: State Education, Social Mobility and Cultural Difference. London and New York: Routledge. 1.
[18]	Huo Da. (1997). The Jade King: History of a Chinese Muslim Family. Translated from Chinese by Guan Yue-hua and Zhong Lian-bi. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press. Passim.
[19]	Gillette, Maris Boyd. (2000), Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption among Urban Chinese Muslims. California: Stanford University Press. (Book blurb on the front flap).
[20]	Yousif, Ahmad F. (1993). Muslims in Canada: A Question of Identity. Ottawa: LEGAS. 61-62.
[21]	Dillon, Michael (ed.), (2009). Islam in China: Key Papers, vol. 2. Folkestone: Global Oriental. 581-585.

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APA Style

Qin, M. K., Jian-jun, M. (2025). Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanities and Social Sciences, 13(6), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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Qin, M. K.; Jian-jun, M. Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2025, 13(6), 519-532. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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AMA Style

Qin MK, Jian-jun M. Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanit Soc Sci. 2025;13(6):519-532. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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@article{10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11,
  author = {Min Ke Qin and Mai Jian-jun},
  title = {Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development
},
  journal = {Humanities and Social Sciences},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {519-532},
  doi = {10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.hss.20251306.11},
  abstract = {In the studies on Islam, Sufism is an unavoidable topic, so is with Chinese Islam. This paper focuses on Chinese Islamic Sufi orders and sectarianism. Since the length of the paper is quite long, it is divided into two parts, under slightly different titles. The first title is above stated, while the second will be “Sufi Orders and Sectarians: The Shattering Chinese Muslims Unity”. It is intended by this paper to provide the reader a fuller and clearer picture on Chinese Sufism and sectarianism, whose introduction into the country since beginning stirred up disputes and conflicts within Muslim community, later spilled out the community, and escalated to common rebellion against Qing government (1644-1911) from 1862 to 1878. In this first part, the author traces the fountain sources of those orders and sectarians, often to Arab nations and Central Asia, even Muslim India. In the discussion, the author redivides those orders and sectarians into three categories: one traditional school (Qedim sect), three movements (Xidaotang, Ikhwan, and Salafiyya), and four Sufi orders (Jehriyya, Khufiyya, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya). Based on the existing materials, mainly Ma Tong’s field research work, which provides the firsthand information on Chinese Sufi orders and sectarianism, the author delineates the formation of those Sufi orders and sectarians, so to lay a solid foundation for further discussion of their later development, analyzing the causes and reasons of later disputes and conflict. This paper does not claim to be creative and all-inclusive but try to provide the reader a fuller contour of Chinese Islam. It best can be complementary to the existing body of similar research.
},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development

AU  - Min Ke Qin
AU  - Mai Jian-jun
Y1  - 2025/10/30
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
T2  - Humanities and Social Sciences
JF  - Humanities and Social Sciences
JO  - Humanities and Social Sciences
SP  - 519
EP  - 532
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-8184
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
AB  - In the studies on Islam, Sufism is an unavoidable topic, so is with Chinese Islam. This paper focuses on Chinese Islamic Sufi orders and sectarianism. Since the length of the paper is quite long, it is divided into two parts, under slightly different titles. The first title is above stated, while the second will be “Sufi Orders and Sectarians: The Shattering Chinese Muslims Unity”. It is intended by this paper to provide the reader a fuller and clearer picture on Chinese Sufism and sectarianism, whose introduction into the country since beginning stirred up disputes and conflicts within Muslim community, later spilled out the community, and escalated to common rebellion against Qing government (1644-1911) from 1862 to 1878. In this first part, the author traces the fountain sources of those orders and sectarians, often to Arab nations and Central Asia, even Muslim India. In the discussion, the author redivides those orders and sectarians into three categories: one traditional school (Qedim sect), three movements (Xidaotang, Ikhwan, and Salafiyya), and four Sufi orders (Jehriyya, Khufiyya, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya). Based on the existing materials, mainly Ma Tong’s field research work, which provides the firsthand information on Chinese Sufi orders and sectarianism, the author delineates the formation of those Sufi orders and sectarians, so to lay a solid foundation for further discussion of their later development, analyzing the causes and reasons of later disputes and conflict. This paper does not claim to be creative and all-inclusive but try to provide the reader a fuller contour of Chinese Islam. It best can be complementary to the existing body of similar research.

VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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Author Information

Min Ke Qin

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0009-8627-4232
Mai Jian-jun

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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APA Style

Qin, M. K., Jian-jun, M. (2025). Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanities and Social Sciences, 13(6), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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ACS Style

Qin, M. K.; Jian-jun, M. Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2025, 13(6), 519-532. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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AMA Style

Qin MK, Jian-jun M. Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development. Humanit Soc Sci. 2025;13(6):519-532. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11

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@article{10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11,
  author = {Min Ke Qin and Mai Jian-jun},
  title = {Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development
},
  journal = {Humanities and Social Sciences},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {519-532},
  doi = {10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.hss.20251306.11},
  abstract = {In the studies on Islam, Sufism is an unavoidable topic, so is with Chinese Islam. This paper focuses on Chinese Islamic Sufi orders and sectarianism. Since the length of the paper is quite long, it is divided into two parts, under slightly different titles. The first title is above stated, while the second will be “Sufi Orders and Sectarians: The Shattering Chinese Muslims Unity”. It is intended by this paper to provide the reader a fuller and clearer picture on Chinese Sufism and sectarianism, whose introduction into the country since beginning stirred up disputes and conflicts within Muslim community, later spilled out the community, and escalated to common rebellion against Qing government (1644-1911) from 1862 to 1878. In this first part, the author traces the fountain sources of those orders and sectarians, often to Arab nations and Central Asia, even Muslim India. In the discussion, the author redivides those orders and sectarians into three categories: one traditional school (Qedim sect), three movements (Xidaotang, Ikhwan, and Salafiyya), and four Sufi orders (Jehriyya, Khufiyya, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya). Based on the existing materials, mainly Ma Tong’s field research work, which provides the firsthand information on Chinese Sufi orders and sectarianism, the author delineates the formation of those Sufi orders and sectarians, so to lay a solid foundation for further discussion of their later development, analyzing the causes and reasons of later disputes and conflict. This paper does not claim to be creative and all-inclusive but try to provide the reader a fuller contour of Chinese Islam. It best can be complementary to the existing body of similar research.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Sufi Orders and Islamic Sectarianism in China: Origin and Early Development

AU  - Min Ke Qin
AU  - Mai Jian-jun
Y1  - 2025/10/30
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
T2  - Humanities and Social Sciences
JF  - Humanities and Social Sciences
JO  - Humanities and Social Sciences
SP  - 519
EP  - 532
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-8184
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20251306.11
AB  - In the studies on Islam, Sufism is an unavoidable topic, so is with Chinese Islam. This paper focuses on Chinese Islamic Sufi orders and sectarianism. Since the length of the paper is quite long, it is divided into two parts, under slightly different titles. The first title is above stated, while the second will be “Sufi Orders and Sectarians: The Shattering Chinese Muslims Unity”. It is intended by this paper to provide the reader a fuller and clearer picture on Chinese Sufism and sectarianism, whose introduction into the country since beginning stirred up disputes and conflicts within Muslim community, later spilled out the community, and escalated to common rebellion against Qing government (1644-1911) from 1862 to 1878. In this first part, the author traces the fountain sources of those orders and sectarians, often to Arab nations and Central Asia, even Muslim India. In the discussion, the author redivides those orders and sectarians into three categories: one traditional school (Qedim sect), three movements (Xidaotang, Ikhwan, and Salafiyya), and four Sufi orders (Jehriyya, Khufiyya, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya). Based on the existing materials, mainly Ma Tong’s field research work, which provides the firsthand information on Chinese Sufi orders and sectarianism, the author delineates the formation of those Sufi orders and sectarians, so to lay a solid foundation for further discussion of their later development, analyzing the causes and reasons of later disputes and conflict. This paper does not claim to be creative and all-inclusive but try to provide the reader a fuller contour of Chinese Islam. It best can be complementary to the existing body of similar research.

VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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